The Majapahit Kingdom (1293–c. 1527) stands as one of the most powerful and storied empires in Southeast Asian history. Based in East Java, it was the last major Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of the Malay Archipelago and is celebrated today as the historical precursor to the modern Indonesian nation.
Its legacy is one of unification, grand cultural flourishing, and remarkable maritime prowess, establishing a vision of a single, powerful state across the vast islands, a concept it termed Nusantara.
The Founding: Triumph from Turmoil
The story of Majapahit’s emergence is rooted in political upheaval and a surprising act of cunning. The kingdom was founded by Raden Wijaya, the son-in-law of Kertanegara, the last king of Singhasari. After Kertanegara was killed and Singhasari was overthrown by Jayakatwang of Kediri, Wijaya sought refuge.
The pivotal moment came in 1293 when a massive Mongol (Yuan Dynasty) naval expedition, sent by Kublai Khan to punish Kertanegara, arrived in Java. Wijaya, demonstrating brilliant political strategy, allied himself with the Mongols to defeat Jayakatwang.
Once the immediate enemy was vanquished, Wijaya swiftly betrayed his unsuspecting allies, launching a surprise attack that forced the Mongol army, caught in unfamiliar territory, to retreat in confusion.
On November 10, 1293, Raden Wijaya founded his new kingdom in a forested area that he named Majapahit—a name derived from the local maja fruit and the Javanese word for “bitter” (pahit). He took the regnal name Kertarajasa Jayawarddhana, establishing the kingdom’s capital near the modern town of Trowulan.
The Golden Age: The Vision of Nusantara
The zenith of the Majapahit Kingdom occurred roughly between 1350 and 1389, during the reign of King Hayam Wuruk (also known as Rajasanagara) and his legendary Prime Minister, Gajah Mada. This period marks the true realization of the Majapahit’s imperial ambition—the grand project of unifying the archipelago.
Gajah Mada’s Palapa Oath
The driving force behind this expansion was the formidable military leader and statesman, Gajah Mada. His resolve was famously captured in the Sumpah Palapa (Palapa Oath), sworn in 1336 when he was inaugurated as Mahapatih (Grand Prime Minister) under Queen Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi (Hayam Wuruk’s mother).
“I will not taste palapa (spices/pleasures) before I succeed in unifying Nusantara. If I succeed in unifying Nusantara, then I will cease to fast.”
The term Nusantara, which literally means “outer islands” (nusa = island, antara = between/outer), referred to the islands outside of Java under Majapahit’s claimed hegemony. This oath was a political declaration of intent to conquer and integrate the entire archipelago, laying the philosophical and territorial groundwork for what would become modern Indonesia.
Imperial Expansion and Administration
Under the combined might of Hayam Wuruk and Gajah Mada, Majapahit’s influence extended over a vast territory, arguably encompassing most of what is now Indonesia, Malaysia, and parts of the Philippines.
Literary sources like the Nagarakertagama, a eulogy written in 1365 by the court poet Mpu Prapanca, describe Majapahit as the center of a massive mandala (a political model where power radiates outward from a central court).
The empire’s administration followed a tiered system:
- Negara Agung (Grand State): The core realm, consisting of the capital (Trowulan) and the surrounding areas of East Java, under direct royal administration.
- Mancanegara: Provinces within Java, Bali, and highly important overseas islands that had adopted Javanese culture, ruled by the king’s relatives and paying annual tributes.
- Nusantara: The outer regions, often distant vassal states in Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi, Maluku, and the Malay Peninsula. While these areas paid tribute and acknowledged Majapahit’s supremacy, they retained substantial autonomy and local rulers.
Majapahit’s prosperity was built on two main pillars: extensive wet rice cultivation in the fertile Javanese plains and, more significantly, controlling the lucrative spice trade and major sea lanes.
Their powerful navy, led by figures like Admiral Nala, was crucial in maintaining maritime dominance and ensuring the flow of commerce from the Spice Islands (Maluku) through the archipelago to major trading partners like China, Champa (Vietnam), and Siam (Thailand).
Culture, Religion, and Legacy
Majapahit was not just a military power; it was a beacon of high culture, sophistication, and religious tolerance. The dominant state religions were a syncretic blend of Hinduism (Shivaism) and Buddhism, often viewed as two paths to the same spiritual goal.
This coexistence is famously captured in the Old Javanese phrase, “Bhineka Tunggal Ika” (Unity in Diversity), which originates from the Kakawin Sutasoma written by Mpu Tantular during this era. This motto has been adopted as the national slogan of the Republic of Indonesia.
The kingdom produced remarkable artistic and literary works. Aside from the aforementioned Nagarakertagama and Kakawin Sutasoma, Majapahit arts, particularly in sculpture and architecture, display a distinct Javanese style that fused indigenous elements with Indianized traditions.
The capital, Trowulan, was a cosmopolitan hub of trade, art, and intellectual life, supporting a thriving cash economy and a wide variety of industries.
Decline and Enduring Impact
Following the death of Gajah Mada in 1364 and King Hayam Wuruk in 1389, the Majapahit Kingdom began a long period of slow decline. Succession disputes led to civil wars, most notably the Paregreg conflict (1405–1406).
Simultaneously, the flourishing of new trade networks and the gradual spread of Islam along the northern coast of Java weakened the central authority.
By the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the coastal Islamic Sultanates, such as Demak, grew in power and eventually eclipsed the Hindu-Buddhist state. The fall of Majapahit marks the end of Indonesia’s classical Hindu-Buddhist age and ushered in the era of Islamic sultanates.
Yet, the impact of Majapahit endures profoundly. It left a powerful narrative of a united, sovereign archipelago. Indonesian national heroes, like the nation’s first president Sukarno, frequently invoked the glory of the Majapahit Empire as proof of Indonesia’s historical greatness and territorial claim to the vast island nation.
The vision of Nusantara, conceived by Gajah Mada, remains the foundational concept of modern Indonesian unity, cementing the kingdom’s role not merely as an ancient empire, but as the enduring cultural and political ancestor of the Indonesian Republic.